No cultural or political entity created by humankind can be considered independently of geography. In this context, when examining the history of East Turkestan, matters concerning the kingdoms established and destroyed in this region cannot be overlooked. Located at the crossroads of the Silk Road—one of the most important trade routes in history that connected the Far East to Europe and Siberia to South Asia—East Turkestan today spans an area of 1,828,428 km², making it the second-largest Turkish homeland after Kazakhstan.
Renowned Islamic scholars such as Ibn Sina, Mahmud al-Kashgari, and Farabi, as well as great statesmen like Abdulkarim Satuk Bughra, Bilge Khagan, and Yakup Beg, were raised in these lands. During the dark ages of the medieval period, when Europe was unaware of libraries, East Turkestan stood out as a center of culture and science.
Economically, East Turkestan today meets approximately 30% of China’s energy needs with its coal, natural gas, petroleum, and uranium reserves. Due to its underground and surface resources and strategic location, East Turkestan has always been a target for China throughout history.
Since ancient times, East Turkestan has changed hands among Turkish kingdoms, Mongols, and Chinese rulers. Chronologically, we can begin with the rule of the Hun Empire from 220 BCE to 216 CE.
The first known emperor of the Great Huns was Teoman. However, the most prominent and internationally recognized leader was undoubtedly the great commander Mete Han. The Chinese even built the Great Wall in 214 BCE during Mete Han’s reign to protect themselves from Hun invasions. Mete Han marched against China to control the Silk Road and defeated Chinese forces in 200 BCE, forcing them to pay tribute. With the expansion of this great empire’s territories, centralized administration became crucial. Following Mete’s death, internal strife arose among the Huns. Due to close relations with China, internal conflicts worsened, spurred by espionage activities from Chinese princesses, leading to clashes among Turkish tribes. Consequently, China increased its influence over the Silk Road and seized control. Ultimately, the divided leadership led to the split of the Hun Empire into Eastern and Western Huns in 46 BCE, marking the end of this great empire.
Following the collapse of the Hun Empire and the loss of major authority in Central Asia, the Hephthalites (also known as the White Huns) took control of the region. Their reign ended due to the cooperation between the Göktürks and the Sassanids. Later, Bumin Khagan established the Göktürk Empire with Ötüken as its center, expanding the empire across a vast area. During this period, the people of East Turkestan enjoyed prosperity. However, the empire eventually split into two and fell under Chinese invasion. Ishbara Khan, who ruled the eastern wing of the state, sent the following message to the Chinese Emperor:
“I will remain loyal and send tribute with valuable horses. However, I cannot change my language. I cannot style my flowing hair like yours. I cannot dress my people in Chinese garments, nor can I alter our customs and laws. It is impossible, for my nation is extraordinarily sensitive in these matters—it is like a single beating heart.”
The invasion, which lasted from 654 to 682, ended with Kürşad’s rebellion against China, leading to the establishment of the Second Göktürk Khaganate and the unification of Turkish tribes under one rule. Kürşad and his 39 warriors stormed the Chinese palace and fought the Chinese army with unmatched bravery. Even Chinese historical records state that hundreds of Chinese soldiers were killed by Kürşad and his 39 heroes. Although Kürşad was not successful in this assassination attempt, he has been regarded as a powerful symbol of the Turkish culture of resistance. His legendary struggle inspired other Turkish tribes, strengthening their resistance and national cause.
The Göktürk Empire also holds great significance in Turkish literary and artistic history. During this period, the Orkhon inscriptions, which are vital to both Turkish and world history, were written. One of the standout verses in the Bilge Khagan inscription reads:
“Turkic Oghuz Beys, hear me! Unless the sky above collapses or the earth below splits, who can destroy your nation and traditions?”
The inscription also warns that abandoning one’s language, traditions, and customs would pose the greatest danger in the face of invasions.
The Second Göktürk Empire was eventually overthrown in 745 by the Uyghurs. During this period, Moyen Chur Khagan took advantage of China's internal strife, intervened in its internal affairs, identified strategic regions, and established dominance over China. After his death, his son Bögü Khagan launched a campaign against Tibet. Due to relations established with China during this time, Bögü Khagan converted to Manichaeism.
Manichaeism significantly influenced the social and commercial characteristics of the Turks. The Uyghur state eventually collapsed in 840 due to Kyrgyz invasions, Chinese intrigues, and famine. After the fall of the Uyghurs, the Karakhanid State was founded, becoming the first to introduce Islam to the region.
During the Karakhanid era, the foundations of the centuries-old Turkish-Islamic civilization were laid, and significant advancements were made in education and culture. Key works of early Turkish literature, such as Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk and Kutadgu Bilig, were written during this period. However, Kyrgyz invasions reemerged, prompting the Uyghurs to migrate to major trade centers across Asia. In these new regions, they established the East Turkestan Uyghur State and the Gansu Uyghur State. Located along the Silk Road, the East Turkestan Uyghur State saw great development in agriculture, trade, arts, and literature. The Karakhanid State was eventually conquered by the Mongols in 1209. After Genghis Khan’s rule, his son Chagatai succeeded him. The Turkified and Islamized Chagatai Khans facilitated the spread of Islam across East Turkestan. After the fall of the Chagatai dynasty, East Turkestan came under Timur's control in 1370. Under the reigns of Ulugh Beg, Ali-Shir Nava'i, Husayn Bayqara, and Shah Rukh, East Turkestan became a center of science.
In 1514, Said Khan conquered the cities of Kashgar, Hotan, and Yarkent, founding the Saidiya Khanate. During this time, “Hojas” had great influence over the government. After the heavy blow to Turkistan’s Turkish identity, Turkish rulers began seeking refuge in the spiritual leadership of these Hojas, even becoming their disciples.
In 1644, the Manchus invaded China and entered East Turkestan. In 1678, the 77-year period known as the Era of the Hojas began and lasted until 1759, ending with renewed Chinese control. Factionalism and internal strife among the Hojas provided a perfect opportunity for the Chinese, who followed the “divide and rule” policy.
Following this invasion, repressive policies in East Turkistan intensified once again and continued for many years. In response to resistance movements, China killed 1,200,000 people and exiled 12,000 others. Due to various resistance efforts, Chinese dominance weakened, and in 1863 Yakup Beg established the Independent State of East Turkestan. Under Yakup Beg’s leadership, East Turkestan remained independent for 13 years before falling once more under Chinese control. During his reign, Yakup Beg earned the title “Bedevlet” (Blessed Ruler). To secure his state’s sovereignty, he sent an envoy to the Ottoman Empire, requesting recognition from Sultan Abdulaziz. The Sultan recognized the state and provided arms and supplies. Other nations, including Russia, England, and India, also acknowledged the state. The Kashgar Khanate, which ruled from 1864 to 1877, became the last frontier of the Ottoman Empire in distant Asia and helped spread the consciousness of independence and free living across Turkestan.
After Yakup Beg’s death in 1877, China re-invaded amidst internal unrest. Chinese attacks and succession conflicts led to the quick fall of the Kashgar Khanate, which had been governed by Sharia law. Subsequently, East Turkestan was annexed as China’s 19th province and renamed “Xinjiang” (New Territories). During this period, no Turk held administrative positions, and the people faced severe injustice and oppression.
In response to these hardships, the East Turkestan Islamic Republic was established in 1933 but was short-lived due to interventions by China and the Soviet Union. Then, the pressures and tortures reached an unbearable point, and as a result of the increasing national independence movements, the Eastern Turkestan Republic was declared in 1944. However, in 1949, the region was reoccupied as a result of cooperation between Soviet leader Stalin and Chinese Communist leader Mao Zedong. This occupation, which continues today, violates international law and human rights. Ongoing human rights abuses and systematic oppression have sparked serious debates regarding the legitimacy of this occupation.
Throughout its millennia-long history, East Turkestan has hosted profound civilizations and faced continuous wars and internal conflicts. As the ancestral homeland of the Turks, it remains an essential cultural and geographical center. The region’s historical and cultural richness has left global impacts, yet recent political and social turmoil has prevented it from achieving its rightful ideal of freedom and independence. Resolving the regional instability in East Turkestan, ending human rights violations, and achieving lasting peace require global sensitivity and cooperation.
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